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Major manufacturers of PC processors. Russian processors Which company does not produce processors?

Russian processor Elbrus-8S

Good afternoon, dear readers. Today's topic will be very interesting to avid patriots. Go Russia!!! And today we’ll talk about Russian processors “ Elbrus" And " Baikal" It’s a shame that the article can’t be called “ Russian-made processors", because in fact they are produced in East Asia (like most of the world's leading electronics), and not in Russia. But we can be proud that Russia is one of the few countries in the world that is capable of developing its own microprocessors, because the future lies behind them.

Are there those among you who, to search for an article, entered the phrase “ Russian processors"? If we talk about people, then “ Not all Russians are Russians" And if we talk about processors, then they Russian. Info 100%, I checked!

So what do we have for today? And today we are in the first half of 2017 and Russian processors are developing relentlessly.

Russian processors "Processor-9" with support for DDR4 memory

What do we see in the subtitle? With the support ! This means nothing more than that Processor-9 will be in direct competition with existing giants Intel and AMD. Here you can really be proud of Russia.

What is Processor-9? This is the code name of a top Russian processor Elbrus-16S from the MCST company. It is planned to begin production in 2018. There will be two processor options with 8 and 16 cores. In general, the processor characteristics are:

Main technical characteristics of the Elbrus-16S processor (Processor-9)

Previously, computers based on Russian Elbrus processors were already sold. 4 C, but they cost an exorbitant amount of money. This was due to the fact that mass production of processors had not been established. These computers were rather experimental models, and therefore cost up to 400,000 rubles. In the case of Elbrus-16S, the situation will be corrected by mass production of processors in Taiwan. In addition, the manufacturer must understand that at such a price there can be no talk of any competitiveness.

Why don't we compare information about the entire line of Elbrus processors? It's interesting.

Elbrus-2C+ Elbrus-4S Elbrus-8S Elbrus-16S
Year of issue 2011 2014 2015-2018 (revisions) 2018 (plan)
Clock frequency 500 MHz 800 MHz 1300 MHz 1500 MHz
Bit depth I don't know 32/64 bit 64 bit 64/128 bit
Number of cores 2 4 8 8/16
Level 1 cache 64 KB 128 KB — —
L2 cache 1 MB 8 MB 4 MB 4 MB
Level 3 cache — — 16 MB 16 MB
RAM support DDR2-800 3 x DDR3-1600 4 x DDR3-1600 4 x DDR4-2400
Technical process 90 nm 65 nm 28 nm 28 nm (or 16)
Power consumption 25 W 45 W 75-100 W 60-90 W

There were also developments of processors that did not pass state certification. But that was a long time ago and not true.

What do you think about Russian processors? Would you buy a computer for 400,000 just because it is Russian? Write, let's talk about this topic.

Russian Elbrus processors compared to Intel

I know that many people are interested in comparing Russian processors with Intel processors. This is not surprising, Russians are a proud people, and therefore we want to compare our achievements with the best. And Intel is exactly like that in the world of computer processors.

In general, there is a certain tablet floating around the network comparing Elbrus processors with Intel, but decide for yourself how reliable it is. As I understand, this table is not new, because the comparison is not with the newest Intel processors, but some of them still cannot be called old. Moreover, some of them are powerful servers Intel processors Xeon. In the table you can compare the main technical characteristics, as well as the performance of processors in Gigaflops.

In general, here is the processor comparison table itself. I am inserting it in the form in which I found it, do not judge strictly. It’s a pity that there is only a comparison between Elbrus and Intel, and there are no Baikal processors there, but I think there will still be enthusiasts who will correct this shortcoming.

Russian Elbrus processors: comparison with Intel

Russian processors Baikal-T1 and Baikal-M

If Elbrus processors are intended purely for computers and are ready to compete with other manufacturing companies, then Baikal processors are intended more for the industrial segment and will not face such tough competition. However, Baikal-M processors are already being developed, which can be used for desktop PCs.

Processor Baikal-T1

According to Baikal Electronics, processors Baikal-T1 can be used for routers, routers and other telecommunications equipment, for thin clients and office equipment, for multimedia centers, CNC systems. But the processors Baikal-M can become the heart of work PCs, industrial automation and building management. Already more interesting! But detailed information O technical specifications Not yet. We only know that it will run on 8 ARMv8-A cores and will have up to eight ARM Mali-T628 graphics cores on board and, what is also important, the manufacturers promise to make it very energy efficient. Let's see what happens.

While I was writing the article, I made a request to Baikal Electronics JSC, and the answer was not long in coming. Dear Andrey Petrovich Malafeev (public relations and corporate events manager) kindly shared with us the latest information about the Baikal-M processor.

The company plans to release the first engineering samples of the Baikal-M processor this fall. And then I quote, so as not to distort the essence of the information in any way:

— Start of quote —

The Baikal-M processor is a system on a chip that includes energy-efficient processor cores with ARMv 8 architecture, a graphics subsystem and a set of high-speed interfaces. Baikal-M can be used as a trusted processor with extensive data protection capabilities in a number of devices in the B2C and B2B segments.

Areas of application of Baikal-M

  • monoblock, automated workplace,graphical workstation;
  • home (office) media center;
  • video conference server and terminal;
  • microserver;
  • Small enterprise level NAS;
  • router/firewall.

The high degree of integration of the Baikal -M processor allows the development of compact products in which the main share of added value comes from the domestic processor. Availability of complete information about the logical circuit and physical topology of the chip, combined with trusted software and associated hardware solutions, allows the processor to be used as part of systems designed to process confidential information.

Applicable software

The widespread use of the ARMv8 (AArch64) architecture allows the use great amount ready-made application and system software. Operating systems supported Linux systems and Android, including at the level of binary distributions and packages. Numerous devices are available that connect to PCIe buses and USB. The software package supplied by Baikal Electronics includes Linux kernel in source text and compiled form, as well as drivers for controllers built into Baikal-M.

Main characteristics of the Baikal-M processor

  • 8 ARM Cortex-A57 cores (64 bit).
  • Operating frequency up to 2 GHz.
  • Hardware support for virtualization and Trust Zone technology at the level of the entire SoC.
  • Interface with RAM – two 64-bit DDR3/DDR4-2133 channels with ECC support
  • Cache – 4 MB (L2) + 8 MB (L3).
  • Eight-core Mali-T628 graphics coprocessor.
  • Video path providing support for HDMI, LVDS
  • Hardware video decoding
  • The built-in PCI Express controller supports 16 PCIe Gen lanes. 3.
  • Two 10 Gigabit Ethernet controllers, two Gigabit Ethernet controllers. Controllers support virtual networks VLAN and traffic prioritization.
  • Two SATA 6G controllers providing data transfer speeds of up to 6 Gbit/s each.
  • 2 USB v.3.0 channels and 4 USB v.2.0 channels.
  • Support for trusted boot mode.
  • Hardware accelerators supporting GOST 28147-89, GOST R 34.11-2012.
  • Energy consumption – no more than 30 W.

— End of quote —

What do you say, friends? Did Russian processors impress you or leave you indifferent? Personally, I believe in the great future of Russian digital technologies!

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- This is the main computing component on which the speed of the entire computer greatly depends. Therefore, usually, when selecting a computer configuration, first select the processor, and then everything else.

For simple tasks

If the computer will be used for working with documents and the Internet, then an inexpensive processor with a built-in video core Pentium G5400/5500/5600 (2 cores / 4 threads), which differ only slightly in frequency, will suit you.

For video editing

For video editing, it is better to take a modern multi-threaded AMD Ryzen 5/7 processor (6-8 cores / 12-16 threads), which, in tandem with a good video card, will also cope well with games.
AMD Ryzen 5 2600 Processor

For average gaming computer

For a purely mid-class gaming computer, it is better to take the Core i3-8100/8300; they have honest 4 cores and perform well in games with mid-class video cards (GTX 1050/1060/1070).
CPU Intel Core i3 8100

For a powerful gaming computer

For a powerful gaming computer, it is better to take a 6-core Core i5-8400/8500/8600, and for a PC with a top-end graphics card i7-8700 (6 cores / 12 threads). These processors show the best results in games and are capable of fully unleashing powerful video cards (GTX 1080/2080).
Intel Core i5 8400 processor

In any case, the more cores and the higher the processor frequency, the better. Focus on your financial capabilities.

2. How the processor works

The central processor consists of printed circuit board with silicon crystal and various electronic elements. The crystal is covered with a special metal cover, which prevents damage and serves as a heat distributor.

On the other side of the board are the legs (or pads) that connect the processor to the motherboard.

3. Processor manufacturers

Computer processors are produced by two large companies - Intel and AMD at several high-tech factories in the world. Therefore, the processor, regardless of manufacturer, is the most reliable component of a computer.

Intel is a leader in developing technologies used in modern processors. AMD partially adopts their experience, adding something of its own and pursuing a more affordable pricing policy.

4. How do Intel and AMD processors differ?

Intel and AMD processors differ mainly in architecture (electronic circuitry). Some are better at some tasks, some at others.

Intel Core processors generally have higher performance per core, which is why they outperform AMD processors Ryzen is used in most modern games and is more suitable for building powerful gaming computers.

AMD Ryzen processors, in turn, excel in multi-threaded tasks such as video editing; in principle, they are not much inferior to Intel Core in games and are perfect for universal computer, used for both professional tasks and games.

To be fair, it is worth noting that the old inexpensive AMD FX-8xxx series processors, which have 8 physical cores, do a good job of video editing and can be used as a budget option for these purposes. But they are less suitable for gaming and are installed on motherboards with outdated AM3+ socket, which will make it difficult to replace components in the future to improve or repair the computer. So it is better to purchase a more modern AMD Ryzen processor and the corresponding motherboard on socket AM4.

If your budget is limited, but in the future you want to have a powerful PC, then you can first purchase an inexpensive model, and after 2-3 years change the processor to a more powerful one.

5. CPU socket

Socket is a connector for connecting the processor to the motherboard. Processor sockets are marked either by the number of processor legs, or by a numerical and alphabetic designation at the discretion of the manufacturer.

Processor sockets are constantly undergoing changes and new modifications appear from year to year. General recommendation purchase a processor with the most modern socket. This will ensure that both the processor and motherboard can be replaced in the next few years.

Intel processor sockets

  • Completely obsolete: 478, 775, 1155, 1156, 1150, 2011
  • Obsolete: 1151, 2011-3
  • Modern: 1151-v2, 2066

AMD processor sockets

  • Obsolete: AM1, AM2, AM3, FM1, FM2
  • Obsolete: AM3+, FM2+
  • Modern: AM4, TR4

The processor and motherboard must have the same sockets, otherwise the processor simply will not install. Today, the most relevant processors are those with the following sockets.

Intel 1150- they are still on sale, but in the next few years they will go out of use and replacing the processor or motherboard will become more problematic. Have a wide the lineup- from the most inexpensive to quite powerful.

Intel 1151- modern processors, which are no longer much more expensive, but much more promising. They have a wide range of models - from the most inexpensive to quite powerful.

Intel 1151-v2- the second version of socket 1151, differs from the previous one by supporting the most modern 8th and 9th generation processors.

Intel 2011-3— powerful 6/8/10-core processors for professional PCs.

Intel 2066- top-end, most powerful and expensive 12/16/18-core processors for professional PCs.

AMD FM2+- processors with integrated graphics for office tasks and the simplest games. The model range includes both very budget and mid-range processors.

AMD AM3+— aging 4/6/8-core processors (FX), older versions of which can be used for video editing.

AMD AM4— modern multi-threaded processors for professional tasks and games.

AMD TR4— top-end, most powerful and expensive 8/12/16-core processors for professional PCs.

It is not advisable to consider purchasing a computer with older sockets. In general, I would recommend limiting the choice to processors on sockets 1151 and AM4, since they are the most modern and allow you to assemble enough powerful computer for any budget.

6. Main characteristics of processors

All processors, regardless of manufacturer, differ in the number of cores, threads, frequency, cache memory size, frequency of supported RAM, the presence of a built-in video core and some other parameters.

6.1. Number of Cores

The number of cores has the greatest impact on processor performance. An office or multimedia computer requires at least a 2-core processor. If the computer is intended to be used for modern games, then it needs a processor with at least 4 cores. A processor with 6-8 cores is suitable for video editing and heavy professional applications. The most powerful processors can have 10-18 cores, but they are very expensive and are designed for complex professional tasks.

6.2. Number of threads

Hyper-threading technology allows each processor core to process 2 data streams, which significantly increases performance. Multi-threaded processors include Intel Core i7, i9, some Core i3 and Pentium (G4560, G46xx), as well as most AMD Ryzen.

A processor with 2 cores and support for Hyper-treading is close in performance to a 4-core processor, while a processor with 4 cores and Hyper-treading is close to an 8-core processor. For example, the Core i3-6100 (2 cores / 4 threads) is twice as powerful as a 2-core Pentium without Hyper-threading, but still somewhat weaker than an honest 4-core Core i5. But Core processors i5 do not support Hyper-treading, so they are significantly inferior to Core i7 processors (4 cores / 8 threads).

Ryzen 5 and 7 processors have 4/6/8 cores and, respectively, 8/12/16 threads, which makes them kings in tasks such as video editing. The new Ryzen Threadripper processor family features processors with up to 16 cores and 32 threads. But there are lower-end processors from the Ryzen 3 series that are not multi-threaded.

Modern games have also learned to use multi-threading, so for a powerful gaming PC it is advisable to take a Core i7 (8-12 threads) or Ryzen (8-12 threads). Also a good choice in terms of price/performance ratio would be the new 6-core Core-i5 processors.

6.3. CPU frequency

The performance of a processor also greatly depends on its frequency, at which all processor cores operate.

In principle, a processor with a frequency of about 2 GHz is enough for a simple computer to type text and access the Internet. But there are many processors around 3 GHz that cost about the same, so saving money here isn't worth it.

Mid-range multimedia or gaming computer the processor will do with a frequency of about 3.5 GHz.

A powerful gaming or professional computer requires a processor with a frequency closer to 4 GHz.

In any case, the higher the processor frequency, the better, but then look at your financial capabilities.

6.4. Turbo Boost and Turbo Core

Modern processors have the concept of a base frequency, which is indicated in the specifications simply as the processor frequency. We talked about this frequency above.

Intel Core i5, i7, i9 processors also have the concept of maximum frequency in Turbo Boost. This is a technology that automatically increases the frequency of processor cores under heavy load to increase performance. The fewer cores a program or game uses, the more its frequency increases.

For example, the Core i5-2500 processor has a base frequency of 3.3 GHz and a maximum Turbo Boost frequency of 3.7 GHz. Under load, depending on the number of cores used, the frequency will increase to the following values:

  • 4 active cores - 3.4 GHz
  • 3 active cores - 3.5 GHz
  • 2 active cores - 3.6 GHz
  • 1 active core- 3.7 GHz

For processors AMD series A, FX and Ryzen have a similar automatic CPU overclocking technology called Turbo Core. For example, the FX-8150 processor has a base frequency of 3.6 GHz and a maximum Turbo Core frequency of 4.2 GHz.

In order for Turbo Boost and Turbo Core technologies to work, the processor must have enough power and not overheat. Otherwise, the processor will not increase the core frequency. This means the power supply, motherboard and cooler must be powerful enough. Also, the operation of these technologies should not be interfered with BIOS settings motherboard and power settings in Windows.

Modern programs and games use all processor cores and the performance increase from Turbo Boost and Turbo Core technologies will be small. Therefore, when choosing a processor, it is better to focus on the base frequency.

6.5. Cache memory

Cache memory is called inner memory processor that it needs to perform calculations faster. Cache memory size also affects processor performance, but to a much lesser extent than the number of cores and processor frequency. IN different programs this influence can vary in the range of 5-15%. But processors with a large amount of cache memory are much more expensive (1.5-2 times). Therefore, such an acquisition is not always economically feasible.

Cache memory comes in 4 levels:

Level 1 cache has small size and when choosing a processor, it is usually not paid attention to.

The Level 2 cache is the most important. In low-end processors, 256 kilobytes (KB) of Level 2 cache per core is typical. Processors designed for mid-range computers have 512 KB of L2 cache per core. Processors for powerful professional and gaming computers must be equipped with at least 1 megabyte (MB) of Level 2 cache per core.

Not all processors have Level 3 cache. The weakest processors for office tasks may have up to 2 MB of Level 3 cache, or none at all. Processors for modern home multimedia computers should have 3-4 MB of Level 3 cache. Powerful processors for professional and gaming computers should have 6-8 MB of Level 3 cache.

Only some processors have a level 4 cache, and if they have it, it’s good, but in principle it’s not necessary.

If the processor has a level 3 or 4 cache, then the size of the level 2 cache can be ignored.

6.6. Type and frequency of supported RAM

Different processors may support different types and frequencies of RAM. This must be taken into account in the future when choosing a RAM.

Legacy processors may support DDR3 RAM with a maximum frequency of 1333, 1600 or 1866 MHz.

Modern processors support DDR4 memory with a maximum frequency of 2133, 2400, 2666 MHz or more and often for compatibility DDR3L memory, which differs from regular DDR3 in reduced voltage from 1.5 to 1.35 V. Such processors can also work with regular DDR3 memory if you already have it , but processor manufacturers do not recommend this due to the increased degradation of memory controllers designed for DDR4 with an even lower voltage of 1.2 V. In addition, for old memory you also need an old motherboard with DDR3 slots. So the best option This is to sell old DDR3 memory and switch to new DDR4.

Today, the most optimal price/performance ratio is DDR4 memory with a frequency of 2400 MHz, which is supported by all modern processors. Sometimes you can buy memory with a frequency of 2666 MHz for not much more. Well, memory at 3000 MHz will cost much more. In addition, processors do not always work stably with high-frequency memory.

You also need to consider what maximum memory frequency the motherboard supports. But memory frequency has a relatively small impact on overall performance and it’s not really worth pursuing.

Often, users who begin to understand computer components, the question arises regarding the availability of memory modules with much more high frequency, than the processor officially supports (2666-3600 MHz). To operate memory at this frequency, the motherboard must support XMP (Extreme Memory Profile) technology. XMP automatically increases the bus frequency to allow the memory to run at a higher frequency.

6.7. Built-in video core

The processor may have a built-in video core, which allows you to save on the purchase of a separate video card for an office or multimedia PC (watching videos, simple games). But for a gaming computer and video editing you need a separate (discrete) video card.

The more expensive the processor, the more powerful the built-in video core. Among Intel processors, the Core i7 has the most powerful integrated video, followed by i5, i3, Pentium G and Celeron G.

For processors AMD A-series on socket FM2+ the built-in video core is more powerful than that of Intel processors. The most powerful is the A10, then the A8, A6 and A4.

FX processors on the AM3+ socket do not have a built-in video core and were previously used to build inexpensive gaming PCs with a discrete mid-class video card.

Also, most AMD processors of the Athlon and Phenom series do not have a built-in video core, and those that have it are on the very old AM1 socket.

Ryzen processors with the G index have a built-in Vega video core, which is twice as powerful as the video core of previous generation processors from the A8, A10 series.

If you are not going to buy a discrete graphics card, but still want to play undemanding games from time to time, then it is better to give preference to Ryzen G processors. But do not expect that the integrated graphics will handle demanding games. modern games. The maximum she can do is Online Games and some well-optimized games on low or medium graphics settings in HD resolution (1280x720), in some cases Full HD (1920x1080). Watch tests of the processor you need on Youtube and see if it suits you.

7. Other processor characteristics

Processors are also characterized by such parameters as manufacturing process, power consumption and heat dissipation.

7.1. Manufacturing process

The technical process is the technology by which processors are produced. The more modern the equipment and production technology, the finer the technical process. The technological process by which the processor is manufactured greatly depends on its power consumption and heat dissipation. The thinner the technical process, the more economical and cooler the processor will be.

Modern processors are manufactured using process technologies ranging from 10 to 45 nanometers (nm). The lower this value, the better. But first of all, focus on power consumption and the associated heat dissipation of the processor, which will be discussed further.

7.2. CPU power consumption

The greater the number of cores and frequency of the processor, the greater its power consumption. Also, energy consumption strongly depends on the manufacturing process. The thinner the technical process, the lower the energy consumption. The main thing that needs to be taken into account is that a powerful processor cannot be installed on a weak motherboard and it will require more powerful block nutrition.

Modern processors consume from 25 to 220 watts. This parameter can be read on their packaging or on the manufacturer’s website. The parameters of the motherboard also indicate what processor power consumption it is designed for.

7.3. CPU heat dissipation

The heat dissipation of a processor is considered to be equal to its maximum power consumption. It is also measured in Watts and is called the Thermal Design Power (TDP). Modern processors have a TDP in the range of 25-220 Watts. Try to choose a processor with a lower TDP. The optimal TDP range is 45-95 W.

8. How to find out processor characteristics

All main characteristics of the processor, such as the number of cores, frequency and cache memory are usually indicated in sellers’ price lists.

All parameters of a particular processor can be clarified on the official websites of manufacturers (Intel and AMD):

By model number or serial number It’s very easy to find all the characteristics of any processor on the website:

Or simply enter your model number in search engine Google or Yandex (for example, “Ryzen 7 1800X”).

9. Processor models

Processor models change every year, so I won’t list them all here, but will only list series (lines) of processors that change less frequently and that you can easily navigate through.

I recommend purchasing processors of more modern series, as they are more productive and support new technologies. The higher the processor frequency, the higher the model number that comes after the series name.

9.1. Intel processor lines

Old episodes:

  • Celeron – for office tasks (2 cores)
  • Pentium – for entry-level multimedia and gaming PCs (2 cores)

Modern series:

  • Celeron G – for office tasks (2 cores)
  • Pentium G – for entry-level multimedia and gaming PCs (2 cores)
  • Core i3 – for entry-level multimedia and gaming PCs (2-4 cores)
  • Core i5 – for mid-range gaming PCs (4-6 cores)
  • Core i7 – for powerful gaming and professional PCs (4-10 cores)
  • Core i9 – for ultra-powerful professional PCs (12-18 cores)

All Core i7, i9, some Core i3 and Pentium processors support Hyper-threading technology, which significantly increases performance.

9.2. AMD processor lines

Old episodes:

  • Sempron – for office tasks (2 cores)
  • Athlon – for entry-level multimedia and gaming PCs (2 cores)
  • Phenom – for mid-class multimedia and gaming PCs (2-4 cores)

Obsolete series:

  • A4, A6 – for office tasks (2 cores)
  • A8, A10 – for office tasks and simple games (4 cores)
  • FX – for video editing and not very heavy games (4-8 cores)

Modern series:

  • Ryzen 3 – for entry-level multimedia and gaming PCs (4 cores)
  • Ryzen 5 – for video editing and mid-range gaming PCs (4-6 cores)
  • Ryzen 7 – for powerful gaming and professional PCs (4-8 cores)
  • Ryzen Threadripper – for powerful professional PCs (8-16 cores)

Ryzen 5, 7 and Threadripper processors are multi-threaded, which large quantities cores makes them an excellent choice for video editing. In addition, there are models with an “X” at the end of the marking, which have a higher frequency.

9.3. Restarting the series

It is also worth noting that sometimes manufacturers restart old series on new sockets. For example, Intel now has Celeron G and Pentium G with integrated graphics, AMD has updated lines of Athlon II and Phenom II processors. These processors are slightly inferior to their more modern counterparts in performance, but significantly higher in price.

9.4. Core and generation of processors

Along with the change of sockets, the generation of processors usually changes. For example, on socket 1150 there were processors of the 4th Core generation i7-4xxx, on socket 2011-3 - 5th generation Core i7-5xxx. When switching to socket 1151, 6th generation Core i7-6xxx processors appeared.

It also happens that the processor generation changes without changing the socket. For example, 7th generation Core i7-7xxx processors were released on socket 1151.

The change of generations is caused by improvements in the electronic architecture of the processor, also called the core. For example, Core i7-6xxx processors are built on a core code-named Skylake, and those that replaced them Core i7-7xxx on a core Kaby Lake.

The nuclei can have various differences from quite significant to purely cosmetic. For example, Kaby Lake differs from the previous Skylake by updated integrated graphics and blocking of overclocking on the processor bus without the K index.

In a similar way, there is a change in cores and generations of AMD processors. For example, the FX-9xxx processors replaced the FX-8xxx processors. Their main difference is the significantly increased frequency and, as a result, heat generation. But the socket has not changed, but the old AM3+ remains.

AMD FX processors had many cores, the latest being Zambezi and Vishera, but they were replaced by new much more advanced and powerful Ryzen (Zen core) processors on the AM4 socket and Ryzen (Threadripper core) on the TR4 socket.

10. Overclocking the processor

Intel Core processors with a “K” at the end of the marking have a higher base frequency and an unlocked multiplier. They are easy to overclock (increase the frequency) to increase performance, but will require a more expensive motherboard with a Z-series chipset.

All AMD FX and Ryzen processors can be overclocked by changing the multiplier, but their overclocking potential is more modest. Overclocking of Ryzen processors is supported by motherboards based on B350, X370 chipsets.

In general, the ability to overclock makes the processor more promising, since in the future, if there is a slight lack of performance, it will not be possible to change it, but simply overclock it.

11. Packaging and cooler

Processors with the word “BOX” at the end of the label are packaged in a high-quality box and can be sold complete with a cooler.

But some more expensive boxed processors may not have a cooler included.

If “Tray” or “OEM” is written at the end of the marking, this means that the processor is packaged in a small plastic tray and there is no cooler included.

Entry-class processors like Pentium are easier and cheaper to purchase complete with a cooler. But it is often more profitable to buy a mid- or high-end processor without a cooler and select a suitable cooler for it separately. The cost will be about the same, but the cooling and noise level will be much better.

12. Setting up filters in the online store

  1. Go to the "Processors" section on the seller's website.
  2. Select the manufacturer (Intel or AMD).
  3. Select socket (1151, AM4).
  4. Select a processor line (Pentium, i3, i5, i7, Ryzen).
  5. Sort the selection by price.
  6. Browse processors starting with the cheapest ones.
  7. Buy a processor with the maximum possible number of threads and frequency that suits your price.

Thus, you will receive the optimal price/performance ratio processor that meets your requirements at the lowest possible cost.

13. Links

Intel Core i7 8700 processor
Intel Core i5 8600K processor
Processor Intel Pentium G4600

To choose good smartphone, it is important to rely not only on appearance gadget, but also on its “stuffing”. A powerful processor is an undoubted advantage for a device, but when choosing a smartphone, a buyer cannot always determine exactly how good the processor installed in it is. Often this happens due to the fact that people simply do not know which processor manufacturing companies are top. In this article we will try to clarify this issue in detail.

One of the undisputed leaders in modern market processors for smartphones is Qualcomm. It was founded in 1985 in San Diego, California, by two MIT professors, Irwin Jacobs and Andrew Viterbi. The company was engaged in research in the field of wireless communications, as well as the development of single-chip circuits (SoC). Qualcomm has collaborated with corporations such as Ericsson, Kyocera and Atheros.

Qualcomm's range of activities included the production of mobile processors and communication solutions for smartphones. The line of processors is based on the ARM architecture and has a wide model range, divided into several classifications: earlier Qualcomm S1, S2, S3 and S4 processors, and modern Qualcomm 200, 400, 600 and 800.

The most powerful processor at the beginning of 2015 is the Snapdragon 810, which first appeared in the LG G FLEX2 smartphone. It has an 8-core Qualcomm Snapdragon 810 (MSM8994) processor with a clock speed of up to 2 GHz.

The previous version of Snapdragon 805 is used in Samsung smartphones Galaxy S5, Google Nexus 6, LG G3. The number of “points” when testing using the Antutu Benchmark application is 37780.

Nvidia was born in 1993 in Santa Clara, California, where its headquarters are still located. The founder of the company is businessman and electronic technology specialist Huang Zhen Xun.

The name Nvidia is known to almost every user personal computer, as it is the manufacturer of a popular line of graphics cards for PCs and laptops Nvidia GeForce. The company is also developing processors for mobile devices (tablets, smartphones, etc.) based on ARM, united in the general Tegra line (Tegra 2,3, 4, K1, etc.).

The latest generation of Tegra processors is Nvidia Tegra K1. Its characteristics are 2.3 GHz frequency and four cores. This processor is used in Google Nexus, Lenovo and Acer devices. Antutu points – 43851.

The South Korean company Samsung was founded back in 1938 as a food supply company. However, by the end of the 60s, the company reformed quite extensively and switched to the production of electronics, which is still its main field of activity. The headquarters is located in Seoul.

Samsung produces a very wide range of devices: mobile phones, smartphones, tablets, monitors, DVD players, etc. Of course, being one of the world's largest smartphone manufacturers, the company could not ignore the production of processors for these devices.

The Samsung processor line is called Exynos. The base is the ARM architecture. At the end of 2014, the most modern are Samsung processors Exynos 5 Octa 5420 (1.9 GHz, four cores) and Samsung Exynos 5 Octa 5422 (2.1 GHz, four cores). Used in a range of devices Samsung Galaxy: S5, Note 3, etc. Also, Apple and Samsung agreed to cooperate and in 2015 smartphones and Apple tablets will be released with processors produced at the Samsung plant.
Antutu points for Exynos 5 Octa 5420 – 34739.

MediaTek MT

Founded in 1997 by Chinese businessmen and electronics specialists Zai Minggai and Zhuo Jingzhe, the company is based in Taiwan's Hi-Tech Park in Xingchu (though has many branches around the world) and develops data storage systems, components for mobile phones, smartphones and tablets.

This company is most widely known for its production of processors for mobile devices in different price categories. Mediatek is called Qualcomm's main competitor. The most productive processors for smartphones at the end of 2014 are MT6595 (2 GHz, 4 cores), MT6735 (1.5 GHz and 4 cores) and MT6592M (8 cores and 2 GHz). MT processors are used by many smartphone manufacturing companies, from Sony to LG. Antutu rating for MT6592 is 30217.

The choice of smartphones is quite wide, as is the range of characteristics. The buyer just needs to choose the right one! Be careful when choosing a smartphone, and it will serve you faithfully for a long time.

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The production of microcircuits is a very difficult matter, and the closedness of this market is dictated primarily by the features of the dominant photolithography technology today. Microscopic electronic circuits are projected onto a silicon wafer through photomasks, the cost of each of which can reach $200,000. Meanwhile, at least 50 such masks are required to make one chip. Add to this the cost of “trial and error” when developing new models, and you will understand that only very large companies can produce processors in very large quantities.

What should scientific laboratories and high-tech startups that need non-standard designs do? What should we do for the military, for whom purchasing processors from a “probable enemy” is, to put it mildly, not comme il faut?

We visited the Russian production site of the Dutch company Mapper, thanks to which the production of microcircuits can cease to be the lot of celestials and turn into an activity for mere mortals. Well, or almost simple. Here, on the territory of the Moscow Technopolis, with the financial support of the Rusnano Corporation, a key component of the Mapper technology is produced - the electron-optical system.

However, before understanding the nuances of Mapper maskless lithography, it is worth remembering the basics of conventional photolithography.

Clumsy Light

A modern Intel Core i7 processor can have about 2 billion transistors (depending on the model), each of which is 14 nm in size. In pursuit of computing power, manufacturers annually reduce the size of transistors and increase their number. The likely technological limit in this race can be considered 5 nm: at such distances quantum effects begin to appear, due to which electrons in neighboring cells can behave unpredictably.

To deposit microscopic semiconductor structures onto a silicon wafer, they use a process similar to using a photographic enlarger. Unless his goal is the opposite - to make the image as small as possible. The plate (or protective film) is covered with photoresist - a polymer photosensitive material that changes its properties when irradiated with light. The required chip pattern is exposed to a photoresist through a mask and a collecting lens. The printed wafers are typically four times smaller than the masks.


Substances such as silicon or germanium have four electrons in their outer energy level. They form beautiful crystals that look like metal. But, unlike metal, they do not conduct electricity: All their electrons are involved in powerful covalent bonds and cannot move. However, everything changes if you add to them a little donor impurity from a substance with five electrons in the outer level (phosphorus or arsenic). Four electrons bond with the silicon, leaving one free. Silicon with a donor impurity (n-type) is a good conductor. If you add an acceptor impurity from a substance with three electrons at the outer level (boron, indium) to silicon, “holes” are formed in a similar way, a virtual analogue of a positive charge. In this case, we are talking about a p-type semiconductor. By connecting p- and n-type conductors, we get a diode - semiconductor device, passing current in only one direction. p-n-p combination or n-p-n gives us a transistor - current flows through it only if a certain voltage is applied to the central conductor.

The diffraction of light makes its own adjustments to this process: the beam, passing through the holes of the mask, is slightly refracted, and instead of one point, a series of concentric circles are exposed, as if from a stone thrown into a pool. Fortunately, diffraction is inversely related to wavelength, which is what engineers take advantage of by using ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 195 nm. Why not even less? It’s just that the shorter wave will not be refracted by the collecting lens, the rays will pass through without focusing. It is also impossible to increase the collecting ability of the lens - spherical aberration will not allow it: each ray will pass through the optical axis at its own point, disrupting focusing.

The maximum contour width that can be imaged using photolithography is 70 nm. Higher-resolution chips are printed in several steps: 70-nanometer contours are applied, the circuit is etched, and then the next part is exposed through a new mask.

Currently in development is deep ultraviolet photolithography technology, using light with an extreme wavelength of about 13.5 nm. The technology involves the use of vacuum and multilayer mirrors with reflection based on interlayer interference. The mask will also not be a translucent, but a reflective element. Mirrors are free from the phenomenon of refraction, so they can work with light of any wavelength. But for now this is just a concept that may be used in the future.

How processors are made today


A perfectly polished round silicon wafer with a diameter of 30 cm is coated with a thin layer of photoresist. Centrifugal force helps distribute the photoresist evenly.


The future circuit is exposed to a photoresist through a mask. This process is repeated many times because many chips are produced from one wafer.


The part of the photoresist that has been exposed to ultraviolet radiation becomes soluble and can be easily removed using chemicals.


Areas of the silicon wafer that are not protected by photoresist are chemically etched. In their place, depressions form.


A layer of photoresist is again applied to the wafer. This time, exposure exposes those areas that will be subject to ion bombardment.


Under the influence of an electric field, impurity ions accelerate to speeds of more than 300,000 km/h and penetrate the silicon, giving it the properties of a semiconductor.


After removing the remaining photoresist, finished transistors remain on the wafer. A layer of dielectric is applied on top, in which the holes for the contacts are etched using the same technology.


The plate is placed in a copper sulfate solution and a conductive layer is applied to it using electrolysis. Then the entire layer is removed by grinding, but the contacts in the holes remain.


The contacts are connected by a multi-story network of metal “wires.” The number of “floors” can reach 20, and the overall wiring diagram is called the processor architecture.


Only now the plate is cut into many individual chips. Each “crystal” is tested and only then installed on a board with contacts and covered with a silver radiator cap.

13,000 TVs

An alternative to photolithography is electrolithography, when exposure is made not by light, but by electrons, and not by photo-resist, but by electroresist. The electron beam is easily focused to a point of minimal size, down to 1 nm. The technology is similar to a cathode ray tube on a television: a focused stream of electrons is deflected by control coils, painting an image on a silicon wafer.

Until recently, this technology could not compete with the traditional method due to its low speed. In order for an electroresist to react to irradiation, it must accept a certain number of electrons per unit area, so one beam can expose at best 1 cm2/h. This is acceptable for single orders from laboratories, but is not applicable in industry.

Unfortunately, it is impossible to solve the problem by increasing the beam energy: like charges repel each other, so as the current increases, the electron beam becomes wider. But you can increase the number of rays by exposing several zones at the same time. And if several are 13,000, as in Mapper technology, then, according to calculations, it is possible to print ten full-fledged chips per hour.


Of course, combine 13,000 in one device cathode ray tubes it would be impossible. In the case of Mapper, radiation from the source is directed to a collimator lens, which forms a wide parallel beam of electrons. In its path stands an aperture matrix, which turns it into 13,000 individual rays. The beams pass through the blanker matrix - a silicon wafer with 13,000 holes. A deflection electrode is located near each of them. If current is applied to it, the electrons “miss” their hole and one of the 13,000 beams is turned off.

After passing the blankers, the rays are directed to a matrix of deflectors, each of which can deflect its beam a couple of microns to the right or left relative to the movement of the plate (so the Mapper still resembles 13,000 picture tubes). Finally, each beam is further focused by its own microlens and then directed to an electroresist. To date, Mapper technology has been tested at the French microelectronics research institute CEA-Leti and at TSMC, which produces microprocessors for leading market players (including Apple iPhone 6S). Key components of the system, including silicon electronic lenses, are manufactured at the Moscow plant.

Mapper technology promises new prospects not only for research laboratories and small-scale (including military) production, but also for large players. Currently, to test prototypes of new processors, it is necessary to make exactly the same photo masks as for mass production. The ability to prototype circuits relatively quickly promises to not only reduce development costs, but also accelerate progress in the field. Which ultimately benefits the mass consumer of electronics, that is, all of us.

The roots of our digital lifestyle definitely come from semiconductors, which have enabled the creation of complex transistor-based computing chips. They store and process data, which is the basis of modern microprocessors. Semiconductors, which are now made from sand, are a key component of almost any electronic device, from computers to laptops and cell phones. Even cars now cannot do without semiconductors and electronics, since semiconductors control the air conditioning system, the fuel injection process, the ignition, the sunroof, the mirrors and even the steering (BMW Active Steering). Today, almost any device that consumes energy is built on semiconductors.

Microprocessors are without a doubt among the most complex semiconductor products, with the number of transistors soon to reach one billion and the range of functionality already astonishing today. Dual-core Core 2 processors will soon be released on Intel's almost finished 45 nm process technology, and they will already contain 410 million transistors (although most of them will be used for the 6 MB L2 cache). The 45nm process is named for the size of a single transistor, which is now about 1,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. To a certain extent, this is why electronics begins to control everything in our lives: even when the transistor sizes were larger, it was very cheap to produce not very complex microcircuits, the budget for transistors was very large.

In our article we will look at the basics of microprocessor manufacturing, but we will also touch on the history of processors, architecture and look at different products on the market. You can find a lot on the Internet interesting information, some are listed below.

  • Wikipedia: Microprocessor. This article covers different types of processors and provides links to manufacturers and additional Wiki pages dedicated to processors.
  • Wikipedia: Microprocessors (Category). The section on microprocessors provides even more links and information.

PC Competitors: AMD and Intel

The headquarters of Advanced Micro Devices Inc., founded in 1969, is located in Sunnyvale, California, and the “heart” of Intel, which was founded just a year earlier, is located a few kilometers away in the city of Santa Clara. AMD today has two factories: in Austin (Texas, USA) and in Dresden (Germany). The new plant will come into operation soon. In addition, AMD has joined forces with IBM in processor technology development and manufacturing. Of course, this is all a fraction of Intel's size, as the market leader now operates nearly 20 factories in nine locations. About half of them are used to produce microprocessors. So when you compare AMD and Intel, remember that you are comparing David and Goliath.

Intel has an undeniable advantage in the form of huge production capacity. Yes, the company today is a leader in the implementation of advanced technological processes. Intel is about a year ahead of AMD in this regard. As a result, Intel can use more transistors and more cache in its processors. AMD, unlike Intel, has to optimize its technical process as efficiently as possible in order to keep up with its competitors and produce decent processors. Of course, the design of processors and their architecture are very different, but the technical manufacturing process is built on the same basic principles. Although, of course, there are many differences in it.

Microprocessor manufacturing

The production of microprocessors consists of two important stages. The first is the production of the substrate, which AMD and Intel carry out in their factories. This includes imparting conductive properties to the substrate. The second stage is substrate testing, assembly and packaging of the processor. Last operation usually produced in less expensive countries. If you look at Intel processors, you will find an inscription that the packaging was carried out in Costa Rica, Malaysia, the Philippines, etc.

AMD and Intel today are trying to release products for the maximum number of market segments, and, moreover, based on the minimum possible range of crystals. A great example is the Intel Core 2 Duo processor line. There are three processors here with code names for different markets: Merom for mobile applications, Conroe - desktop version, Woodcrest - server version. All three processors are built on the same technological basis, which allows the manufacturer to make decisions at the final stages of production. You can turn functions on or off, and the current level clock frequencies gives Intel an excellent yield of usable crystals. If there is increased market demand for mobile processors, Intel may focus on releasing Socket 479 models. If demand for desktop models increases, the company will test, validate and package dies for Socket 775, while server processors are packaged for Socket 771. So Even quad-core processors are being created: two dual-core chips are installed in one package, so we get four cores.

How chips are created

Chip production involves depositing thin layers with complex “patterns” onto silicon substrates. First, an insulating layer is created that acts as an electrical gate. Photoresist material is then applied on top, and unwanted areas are removed using masks and high-intensity irradiation. When the irradiated areas are removed, areas of silicon dioxide underneath will be exposed, which is removed by etching. After this, the photoresist material is also removed, and we obtain a certain structure on the silicon surface. Additional photolithography processes are then carried out, with different materials, until the desired three-dimensional structure is obtained. Each layer can be doped with a specific substance or ions, changing the electrical properties. Windows are created in each layer so that metal connections can then be made.

As for the production of substrates, they must be cut from a single cylinder monocrystal into thin “pancakes” so that they can then be easily cut into individual processor chips. At every step of production, complex testing is performed to assess quality. Electrical probes are used to test each chip on the substrate. Finally, the substrate is cut into individual cores, and non-working cores are immediately eliminated. Depending on the characteristics, the core becomes one or another processor and is packaged in a package that makes it easier to install the processor on the motherboard. All functional units undergo intensive stress tests.

It all starts with the substrates

The first step in manufacturing processors is done in a clean room. By the way, it is important to note that such high-tech production represents an accumulation of huge capital per square meter. The construction of a modern plant with all the equipment easily costs 2-3 billion dollars, and test runs of new technologies require several months. Only then can the plant mass produce processors.

In general, the chip manufacturing process consists of several wafer processing steps. This includes the creation of the substrates themselves, which will eventually be cut into individual crystals.

It all starts with growing a single crystal, for which a seed crystal is embedded in a bath of molten silicon, which is located just above the melting point of polycrystalline silicon. It is important that the crystals grow slowly (about a day) to ensure that the atoms are arranged correctly. Polycrystalline or amorphous silicon consists of many different crystals, which will lead to the appearance of undesirable surface structures with poor electrical properties. Once the silicon is molten, it can be doped with other substances that change its electrical properties. The entire process takes place in a sealed room with a special air composition so that the silicon does not oxidize.

The single crystal is cut into “pancakes” using a diamond hole saw, which is very accurate and does not create large irregularities on the surface of the substrate. Of course, the surface of the substrates is still not perfectly flat, so additional operations are required.

First, using rotating steel plates and an abrasive material (such as aluminum oxide), a thick layer is removed from the substrates (a process called lapping). As a result, irregularities ranging in size from 0.05 mm to approximately 0.002 mm (2,000 nm) are eliminated. Then you should round the edges of each backing, since sharp edges can cause layers to peel off. Next, an etching process is used, when using various chemicals (hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, nitric acid) the surface is smoothed by about 50 microns. The surface is not physically degraded since the entire process is completely chemical. It allows you to remove remaining errors in the crystal structure, resulting in a surface that is close to ideal.

The last step is polishing, which smoothes the surface to a maximum roughness of 3 nm. Polishing is carried out using a mixture of sodium hydroxide and granular silica.

Today, microprocessor wafers are 200mm or 300mm in diameter, allowing chip makers to produce multiple processors from each one. The next step will be 450mm substrates, but we shouldn't expect them before 2013. In general, the larger the diameter of the substrate, the more chips of the same size can be produced. A 300mm wafer, for example, produces more than twice as many processors as a 200mm wafer.

We have already mentioned doping, which is performed during the growth of a single crystal. But doping is done both with the finished substrate and later during photolithography processes. This allows you to change the electrical properties of certain areas and layers, and not the entire crystal structure

The addition of the dopant can occur through diffusion. Atoms of the dopant fill the free space inside the crystal lattice, between the silicon structures. In some cases, it is possible to alloy the existing structure. Diffusion is carried out using gases (nitrogen and argon) or using solids or other sources of alloying substance.

Another approach to doping is ion implantation, which is very useful in changing the properties of the substrate that has been doped, since ion implantation is carried out at normal temperatures. Therefore, existing impurities do not diffuse. You can apply a mask to the substrate, which allows you to process only certain areas. Of course, we can talk about ion implantation for a long time and discuss the depth of penetration, activation of the additive at high temperatures, channel effects, penetration into oxide levels, etc., but this is beyond the scope of our article. The procedure can be repeated several times during production.

To create sections of an integrated circuit, a photolithography process is used. Since it is not necessary to irradiate the entire surface of the substrate, it is important to use so-called masks that transmit high-intensity radiation only to certain areas. Masks can be compared to black and white negatives. Integrated circuits have many layers (20 or more), and each of them requires its own mask.

A structure of thin chrome film is applied to the surface of a quartz glass plate to create a pattern. In this process, expensive instruments using electron flow or a laser write the necessary integrated circuit data, resulting in a chromium pattern on the surface of a quartz substrate. It is important to understand that each modification of an integrated circuit leads to the need to produce new masks, so the entire process of making changes is very expensive. For very complex schemes, masks take a very long time to create.

Using photolithography, a structure is formed on a silicon substrate. The process is repeated several times until many layers (more than 20) are created. Layers can consist of different materials Moreover, you also need to think through connections with microscopic wires. All layers can be alloyed.

Before the photolithography process begins, the substrate is cleaned and heated to remove sticky particles and water. Then the substrate using special device coated with silicon dioxide. Next, a coupling agent is applied to the substrate, which ensures that the photoresist material that will be applied in the next step remains on the substrate. Photoresist material is applied to the middle of the substrate, which then begins to rotate at high speed so that the layer is evenly distributed over the entire surface of the substrate. The substrate is then heated again.

Then, through the mask, the cover is irradiated with a quantum laser, hard ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, beams of electrons or ions - all of these light or energy sources can be used. Electron beams are used mainly to create masks, X-rays and ion beams are used for research purposes, and industrial production today is dominated by hard UV radiation and gas lasers.


Hard UV radiation with a wavelength of 13.5 nm irradiates the photoresist material as it passes through the mask.

Projection time and focus are very important to achieve the desired result. Poor focusing will result in excess particles of photoresist material remaining because some of the holes in the mask will not be irradiated properly. The same thing will happen if the projection time is too short. Then the structure of photoresist material will be too wide, the areas under the holes will be underexposed. On the other hand, excessive projection time creates too large areas under the holes and too narrow a structure of photoresist material. As a rule, it is very labor-intensive and difficult to adjust and optimize the process. Unsuccessful adjustment will lead to serious deviations in the connecting conductors.

A special step-by-step projection installation moves the substrate to the desired position. Then a line or one section can be projected, most often corresponding to one processor chip. Additional micro-installations may introduce additional changes. They can debug existing technology and optimize the technical process. Micro installations usually work on areas smaller than 1 square meter. mm, while conventional installations cover larger areas.

The substrate then moves to a new stage where the weakened photoresist material is removed, allowing access to the silicon dioxide. There are wet and dry etching processes that treat areas of silicon dioxide. Wet processes use chemical compounds, while dry processes use gas. A separate process involves removing remnants of photoresist material. Manufacturers often combine wet and dry removal to ensure that the photoresist material is completely removed. This is important because photoresist material is organic and if not removed can cause defects on the substrate. After etching and cleaning, you can begin to inspect the substrate, which usually happens at each important stage, or transfer the substrate to a new photolithography cycle.

Substrate testing, assembly, packaging

Finished substrates are tested in so-called probe testing installations. They work with the entire substrate. Probe contacts are applied to the contacts of each crystal, allowing electrical tests to be carried out. The software tests all functions of each core.

By cutting, individual kernels can be obtained from the substrate. On this moment Probe control installations have already identified which crystals contain errors, so after cutting they can be separated from the good ones. Previously, damaged crystals were physically marked, but now there is no need for this, all information is stored in a single database.

Crystal mount

The functional core must then be bonded to the processor package using adhesive material.

Then you need to make wire connections connecting the contacts or legs of the package and the crystal itself. Gold, aluminum or copper connections can be used.


Most modern processors use plastic packaging with a heat spreader.

Typically the core is encased in ceramic or plastic to prevent damage. Modern processors are equipped with a so-called heat spreader, which provides additional protection for the chip, as well as a larger contact surface with the cooler.

CPU testing

The last stage involves testing the processor, which occurs at elevated temperatures, in accordance with the processor specifications. The processor is automatically installed in the test socket, after which all necessary functions are analyzed.